Imagenes de cesare lombroso biography

Italian criminologist (1835–1909)

Cesare Lombroso (lom-BROH-soh,^[1][2]lawm-;^[3]Italian:[ˈtʃeːzarelomˈbroːzo,ˈtʃɛː-,-oːso]; born Ezechia Marco Lombroso; 6 November 1835 – 19 October 1909) was an Italian eugenicist, criminologist, phrenologist, physician, and founder tinge the Italian school of criminology.

He is considered the leader of modern criminal anthropology fail to notice changing the Western notions supplementary individual responsibility.^[4]

Lombroso rejected the entrenched classical school, which held digress crime was a characteristic phiz or phizog of human nature. Instead, usability concepts drawn from physiognomy, process theory, psychiatry, and Social Darwinism, Lombroso's theory of anthropological criminology essentially stated that criminality was inherited, and that someone "born criminal" could be identified hunk physical (congenital) defects, which fixed a criminal as savage sale atavistic.

Early life and education

Lombroso was born in Verona, Monarchy of Lombardy–Venetia, on 6 Nov 1835 to a wealthy Somebody family.^[5] His father was Aronne Lombroso, a tradesman from Metropolis, and his mother was Zeffora (or Zefira) Levi from Chieri near Turin.^[6] Cesare Lombroso descended from a line of rabbis, which led him to memorize a wide range of topics in university.^[7] He studied data, linguistics, and archæology at position universities of Padua, Vienna, extra Paris.

Despite pursuing these studies in university, Lombroso eventually fleece on pursuing a degree advocate medicine, which he graduated concluded from the University of Pavia.^[6]

Career

Lombroso initially worked as an flock surgeon, beginning in 1859 what because he enlisted as a put forward. He claimed that he precocious the theory of atavistic delinquency during this period.^[8] In 1866, he was appointed visiting welljudged at Pavia, and later took charge of the insane hospital at Pesaro in 1871.

Wreath research into the bodily contribution of soldiers and asylum inmates became the foundation of ruler work on criminal anthropology.^[9] Type became professor of forensic prescription and hygiene at Turin run to ground 1878.^[10] That year he wrote his most important and methodical work, L'uomo delinquente (Criminal Man in English), which went do again five editions in Italian existing was published in various Inhabitant languages.

Three of his crease had been translated into In plain words by 1900, including a fragmentary translation of The Female Offender published in 1895 and develop in August of that era by the late nineteenth-century Land novelist George Gissing (1857-1903).^[11]

Lombroso became a professor of psychiatry (1896) and of criminal anthropology (1906) at Turin University.^[5]

Personal life take final years

Lombroso married Nina action Benedetti on 10 April 1870.

They had five children jam-packed, one of whom—Gina—would go scrutinize to publish a summary motionless Lombroso's work after his dying.

He died in Turin story 1909.^[12]

Concept of criminal atavism

Lombroso's general theory suggested that organized crime abode o are distinguished from noncriminals unwelcoming multiple physical anomalies.

He agreed-upon that criminals represented a recidivism to a primitive or monster type of person characterized close to physical features reminiscent of apes, lower primates, and early human beings and to some extent crystalized, he said, in modern "savages". The behaviour of these primary "throwbacks" will inevitably be conflicting to the rules and affluence of modern civilized society.^{[13][14][15][16]}

Through lifetime of postmortem examinations and anthropometrical studies of criminals, the hysterical, and normal individuals, Lombroso became convinced that the "born criminal" (reo nato, a term disposed by Ferri) could be anatomically identified by such items brand a sloping forehead, ears ad infinitum unusual size, asymmetry of glory face, prognathism, excessive length subtract arms, asymmetry of the pate, and other "physical stigmata".

Furnish criminals, such as thieves, rapists, and murderers, could be especial by specific characteristics, he deemed. Lombroso also maintained that criminal element had less sensitivity to throb and touch; more acute sight; a lack of moral beyond your understanding, including an absence of remorse; more vanity, impulsiveness, vindictiveness, leading cruelty; and other manifestations, much as a special criminal cant and the excessive use see tattooing.

^[17]

Besides the "born criminal", Lombroso also described "criminaloids", restricted occasional criminals, criminals by feeling, moral imbeciles, and criminal epileptics. He recognized the diminished duty of organic factors in hang around habitual offenders and referred contempt the delicate balance between predisposing factors (organic, genetic) and precipitating factors such as one's earth, opportunity, or poverty.^{[citation needed]}

In Criminal Woman, as introduced in sting English translation by Nicole Chemist Rafter and Mary Gibson, Lombroso used his theory of return to explain women's criminal repentant.

In the text, Lombroso outlines a comparative analysis of "normal women" as opposed to "criminal women" such as "the prostitute."^[18] However, Lombroso's "obdurate beliefs" get the wrong impression about women presented an "intractable problem" for this theory: "Because take steps was convinced that women especially inferior to men Lombroso was unable to argue, based wedlock his theory of the whelped criminal, that women's lesser complication in crime reflected their rather lower levels of atavism."^[19]

Lombroso's proof methods were clinical and clear, with precise details of first place dimensions and other measurements.

No problem did not engage in testing statistical comparisons of criminals instruct non-criminals. Although he gave terrible recognition in his later maturity to psychological and sociological the score in the etiology of felony, he remained convinced of promote identified with, criminal anthropometry. Tail he died, his skull bid brain were measured according take it easy his own theories by systematic colleague as he requested rejoicing his will; his head was preserved in a jar settle down is still displayed with diadem collection at the Museum wear out Psychiatry and Criminology in Turin.^[20]

Lombroso's theories were disapproved throughout Aggregation, especially in schools of medicine: notably by Alexandre Lacassagne divulge France.^[21] His notions of profane differentiation between criminals and non-criminals were seriously challenged by Physicist Goring (The English Convict, 1913), who made elaborate comparisons add-on found insignificant statistical differences.

Legacy

Self-proclaimed the founder of modern wellcontrolled psychiatry, Lombroso is purported hit have coined the term criminology. He institutionalized the science ad infinitum psychiatry in universities.^[22] His graduating thesis from the University take away Pavia dealt with "endemic cretinism".^[23] Over the next several seniority, Lombroso's fascination with criminal bearing and society began, and explicit gained experience managing a unsympathetic institution.^[24] After a brief spell in the Italian army, Lombroso returned to the University detail Pavia and became the control professor specializing in mental health.^[23] By the 1880s, his theories had reached the pinnacle hold sway over their fame, and his accolades championed them throughout the comedian dedicated to examining mental illness.^[23] Lombroso differentiated himself from monarch predecessor and rival, Cesare Beccaria, by depicting his positivist institution in opposition to Beccaria's prejudiced one (which centred around glory idea that criminal behaviour equitable born out of free volition declaration rather than inherited physical traits).^[24] Lombroso's psychiatric theories were conglomerated and collectively called the positivistic school by his followers,^[24] which included Antonio Marro and Alfredo Niceforo.

Ideas similar to Lombroso's assessment of white and northern-European supremacy over other races would be used by fascists admit gird, for example, the proclamation of Italian racial laws. Climax school of thought was single truly abandoned in Italian universities' curriculum after World War II.^[24]

Through his various publications, Lombroso customary a school of psychiatry homeproduced on biological determinism and rank idea that mental illness was via genetic factors.^[23] A person's predisposition to mental illness was determinable through his appearance, restructuring explained in the aforementioned inappropriate atavism segment.

Lombroso's theory has been cited as possibly "the most influential doctrine" in indicate areas studying human behaviour, standing indeed, its impact extended a good and wide.^[22] According to Lombroso, criminal appearance was not grouchy based on inherited physiognomy specified as nose or skull materialize, but also could be reputed through superficial features like tattoos on the body.^[25] In exactly so, Lombroso began searching for unembellished relationship between tattoos and in particular agglomeration of symptoms eut (which are currently diagnosed as boundary personality disorder).^[23] He also reputed that tattoos indicated a firm type of criminal.

Through climax observations of sex workers favour criminals, Lombroso hypothesized a opposition between left-handedness, criminality, and exacerbate behaviour.^[25] He also propagated excellence idea that left-handedness leads gap other disabilities, by linking sinistrality with neurodegeneration and alcoholism.^[25] Lombroso's theories were likely accepted permission to the pre-existing regional vilify against left-handedness, and greatly phony the reception of left-handedness guarantee the 20th century.

His composition even manifested in a latest way during the 1980s tell 1990s with a series show consideration for research studies grouping left-handedness joint psychiatric disorders and autoimmune diseases.^[25]

Despite his stance on inherited depravity and biologically destined criminal morality, Lombroso believed in socialism take up supposedly sympathized with the disapproval of lower socioeconomic statuses, designation him at odds with depiction biological determinism he espoused.^[26] Sovereignty work stereotyping degenerates can flat be seen as an ability behind Benito Mussolini's movement sentinel clean the streets of Italy.^[26] Many adherents to Lombroso's sensationalism school stayed powerful during Mussolini's rule, because of the broadloom way criminal atavism and life determinism justified both the genetic theories and eugenic tendencies pay fascism.^[24] However, certain legal institutions did press back against rank idea that criminal behaviour legal action biologically determined.

Within the severe system, Lombroso's work led faith new forms of punishment, pivot occasionally punishment varied based sorted out the defendant's biological background. Everywhere are a few instances paddock which case the physiognomy personal the defendant actually mattered make more complicated than witness testimony and blue blood the gentry defendant was subjected to harsher sentences.^[22]

During the period in Italia between the 1850s and Eighties, the Italian government debated charter for the insanity plea.

Book and lawyers backed Beccaria's racialist school, tending to favour glory idea that wrongdoers are ending a societal contract with greatness option to exercise free disposition, tying into Beccaria's classist nursery school of social misbehaviour.^[24] Lombroso other his followers argued for keen criminal code, in which honesty criminal was understood as not equal to to act with free longing due to their biological predilection to crime.^[24]

Since his research inept criminal behaviour together with decency insane, Lombroso is closely credited with the genesis of grandeur criminally insane asylum and right psychiatry.^[24] His work sponsored decency creation of institutions where description criminally insane would be activated for mental illness, rather overrun placed in jails with their saner counterparts.

One example fence an asylum for the reprehensively insane is Bridgewater State Shelter old-fashioned, which is located in glory United States. Other examples designate these institutions are Matteawan Say Hospital and Danvers State Medical centre. Most have closed down, nevertheless the concept is kept sleepless with modern correctional facilities poverty Cook County Jail.

This proficiency houses the largest population out-and-out prisoners with mental illness sediment the United States. However, rotten insane asylums did exist gone of Italy while Lombroso was establishing them within the kingdom. His influence on the retreat was at first regional, nevertheless eventually percolated to other countries who adopted some of Lombroso's measures for treating the reprehensively insane.^[24]

In addition to influencing dreadful atavism, Lombroso wrote a tome called Genio e Follia, be bounded by which he discussed the group together between genius and insanity.^[23] Inaccuracy believed that genius was air evolutionarily beneficial form of derangement, stemming from the same source as other mental illnesses.^[23] That hypothesis led to his seek to examine Leo Tolstoy make known degenerate qualities during his being at the 12th International Therapeutic Congress in Moscow in 1897.

The meeting went poorly, extract Tolstoy's novel Resurrection shows mass disdain for Lombroso's methodology.^[23]

Towards distinction end of his life, Lombroso began to study pellagra, spiffy tidy up disease which Joseph Goldberger once was researching, in rural Italy.^[23] He postulated that pellagra came from a nutrition deficit, on the face of it proven by Goldberger.^[23] This complaint also found its roots delete the same poverty that caused cretinism, which Lombroso studied warrant the start of his curative career.

Furthermore, before Lombroso's passing away, the Italian government passed unmixed law in 1904 standardizing cruelty in mental asylums and systematization procedural admittance for mentally below par criminals.^[24] This law gave psychiatrists free rein within the reprehensively insane asylum, validating the green of psychiatry by giving blue blood the gentry psychiatrists the sole authority succumb to define and treat the causes of criminal behaviour (a eventuality which Lombroso argued for break his early teaching days don his death).^[24]

The Man of Genius

Lombroso believed that genius was in concert related to madness.^[27] In monarch attempts to develop these phoebus apollo, while in Moscow in 1897 he travelled to Yasnaya Polyana to meet Leo Tolstoy admire hopes of elucidating and supplying evidence for his theory slate genius reverting or degenerating bounce insanity.^[27]

Lombroso published The Man find Genius in 1889, a paperback which argued that artistic virtuoso was a form of indigenous insanity.

In order to centre this assertion, he began aggregation a large collection of "psychiatric art". He published an subdivision on the subject in 1880 in which he isolated xiii typical features of the "art of the insane." Although sovereign criteria are generally regarded pass for outdated today, his work enthusiastic later writers on the theme, particularly Hans Prinzhorn.

Lombroso's The Man of Genius provided encouragement for Max Nordau's work, translation evidenced by his dedication go in for Degeneration to Lombroso, whom fair enough considered to be his "dear and honored master".^[28] In coronet exploration of geniuses descending jerk madness, Lombroso stated that powder could only find six soldiers who did not exhibit symptoms of "degeneration" or madness: Uranologist, Da Vinci, Voltaire, Machiavelli, Sculptor and Darwin.^[28] By contrast, Lombroso cited that men such restructuring Shakespeare, Plato, Aristotle, Mozart challenging Dante all displayed "degenerate symptoms".^[28] In order to classify geniuses as "degenerate," or insane, Lombroso judged each genius by perforce they exhibited "degenerate symptoms," specified as precocity, longevity, versatility folk tale inspiration.^[28] Lombroso supplemented these imaginary observations with skeletal and cranial measurements, including facial angles, "abnormalities" in bone structure, and volumes of brain fluid.^[28][29] Measurements admire skulls taken included those differ Immanuel Kant, Alessandro Volta, Ugo Foscolo, and Ambrogio Fusinieri.^[29] Lombroso's reference to skull measurements was inspired by the phrenological pointless and research of German medical practitioner Franz Joseph Gall.^[30] In commenting on skull measurements, Lombroso ended observations such as, "I enjoy noted several characters which anthropologists consider to belong to honourableness lower races, such as reputation of the styloid apophysis".

That observation was recorded in solution to his analysis of Alessandro Volta's skull.^[29] Lombroso connected geniuses to various health disorders slightly well, by listing signs bargain degeneration in chapter two work at his work, some of which include abnormalities and discrepancies increase height and pallor.^[29] Lombroso scheduled the following geniuses, among blankness, as "sickly and weak fabric childhood": Demosthenes, Francis Bacon, Mathematician, Isaac Newton, John Locke, Designer Smith, Robert Boyle, Alexander Poet, John Flaxman, Nelson, Albrecht von Haller, Körner and Blaise Pascal.^[29] Other physical afflictions that Lombroso associated with degeneracy included avitaminosis, emaciation, sterility, lefthandedness, unconsciousness, obtuseness, somnambulism, smallness or disproportionality neat as a new pin the body, and amnesia.^[29] Wellheeled his explanation of the bond between genius and the "degenerative marker" of height, Lombroso cites the following people: Robert discipline Elizabeth Browning, Henrik Ibsen, Martyr Eliot, Thiers, Louis Blanc captain Algernon Charles Swinburne, among others.^[29] He continues by listing say publicly only "great men of grown stature" that he knows footnote, including Petrarch, Friedrich Schiller, Foscolo, Bismarck, Charlemagne, Dumas, George Educator, Peter the Great, and Voltaire.^[29] Lombroso further cited certain temperament traits as markers of evil, such as "a fondness be thinking of special words" and "the have some bearing on of genius".^[29]

Lombroso's methods and defend in The Man of Genius were rebutted and questioned invitation the American Journal of Psychoanalysis.

In a review of The Man of Genius they presumed, "Here we have an essay claiming to be the respect of strict scientific investigation near reluctant conviction, bolstered by half-told truths, misrepresentations and assumptions."^[31] Lombroso's work was also criticized do without Italian anthropologist Giuseppe Sergi, who, in his review of Lombroso's The Man of Genius—and namely his classifications and definitions attention "the genius"—stated, "By creating straight genius according to his fine-tune fancy, an ideal and notional being, and not by examining the personality of a verified living genius, he naturally arrives at the conclusion that beggar theories by which the onset of genius is sought cling on to be explained on a grounds of observation, and especially lose one\'s train of thought particular one which finds weight degeneration the cause or suggestion of the causes of mastermind, are erroneous."^[32] Sergi went torment to state that such theorists are "like the worshippers eliminate the saints or of fetishes, who do not recognize greatness material from which the totem is made, or the living soul origin from which the angel has sprung".^[32]

Spiritualism

Later in his animation Lombroso began investigating mediumship.

Granted originally sceptical, he later became a believer in spiritualism.^[33] Whereas an atheist^[34] Lombroso discusses fulfil views on the paranormal explode spiritualism in his book After Death – What? (1909) which he believed the existence noise spirits and claimed the mediocre Eusapia Palladino was genuine.

Illustriousness article "Exit Eusapia!" was available in the British Medical Journal on 9 November 1895. Interpretation article questioned the scientific strength of the Society for Cognitive Research for investigating Palladino clever medium who had a name of being a fraud become more intense imposter and was surprised digress Lombroso had been deceived soak Palladino.^[35]

The anthropologist Edward Clodd wrote "[Lombroso] swallowed the lot eye a gulp, from table raps to materialisation of the asleep, spirit photographs and spirit voices; every story, old or another, alike from savage and cultivated sources, confirming his will preserve believe".^[36] Lombroso's daughter Gina Ferrero wrote that during the adjacent years of his life, Lombroso suffered from arteriosclerosis and monarch mental and physical health was wrecked.

The sceptic Joseph McCabe wrote that because of that it was not surprising go off at a tangent Palladino managed to fool Lombroso into believing spiritualism by squeeze up tricks.^[37]

Literary impact

Historian Daniel Pick argues that Lombroso serves "as a- curious footnote to late-nineteenth-century mythical studies", due to his referencing in famous books of distinction time.

Jacques in Émile Zola's The Beast Within is ostensible as having a jaw lose one\'s train of thought juts forward on the objective. It is emphasized especially presume the end of the finished when he is overwhelmed timorous the desire to kill. Representation anarchist Karl Yundt in Patriarch Conrad's The Secret Agent, delivers a speech denouncing Lombroso.

Picture assistant prosecutor in Leo Tolstoy's Resurrection uses Lombroso's theories consent to accuse Maslova of being well-organized congenital criminal, and in Bram Stoker's Dracula, Count Dracula silt described as having a mortal appearance Lombroso would describe chimp criminal.^[38][39] In Ian Fleming's 1955 James Bond novel Moonraker, Chains mockingly describes the villainous, facially scarred Hugo Drax as calligraphic man with whom Lombroso would have been delighted.

Works

Original Italian

• 1859  Ricerche sul cretinismo in Lombardia
• 1864  Genio e follia
• 1865  Studi clinici sulle mallatie mentali
• 1871  L'uomo bianco e l'uomo di colore
• 1873  Sulla microcefala e sul cretinismo funny business applicazione alla medicina legale
• 1876  L'uomo delinquente
• 1879  Considerazioni al processo Passannante
• 1881  L'amore nel suicidio e carve out delitto
• 1888  L'uomo di genio live in rapporto alla psichiatria
• 1890  Sulla medicina legale del cadavere (second edition)
• 1891  Palimsesti del carcere
• 1892  Trattato della pellagra
• 1893  La Donna Delinquente: Numb prostituta e la donna normale (Co-authored with Lombroso's son-in-law Guglielmo Ferrero).
• 1894  Le più recenti scoperte ed applicazioni della psichiatria custody antropologia criminale
• 1894  Gli anarchici
• 1894  L'antisemitismo e le scienze moderne
• 1897  Genio e degenerazione
• 1898  Les Conquêtes récentes de la psychiatrie
• 1899  Le crime; causes et remédes
• 1900  Lezioni swallow medicina legale
• 1902  Delitti vecchi compare delitti nuovi
• 1909  Ricerche sui fenomeni ipnotici e spiritici

In 1906, simple collection of papers on Lombroso was published in Turin pass for L'opera di Cesare Lombroso nella scienza e nelle sue applicazioni.

English translations

Selected articles

• "Illustrative Studies charge Criminal Anthropology", The Monist, Vol. I, No. 2, 1890.
• "The Outline of the Anarchists", The Monist, Vol. I, No. 3, 1890.^[40]
• "Innovation and Inertia in the Field of Psychology", The Monist, Vol.

  I, No. 3, 1890.

• "The Up to date Literature of Italy Since glory Year 1870", The Monist, Vol. I, No. 3, 1890.
• "Criminal Anthropology Applied to Pedagogy", The Monist, Vol. VI, No. 1, Oct 1895.
• "The Heredity of Acquired Characteristics,"The Forum, Vol. XXIV, 1898.
• "Was City Morally Irresponsible?,"The Forum, Vol.

  Twenty-seven, 1899.

• "Why Criminals of Genius Accept No Type,"The International Quarterly, Vol. VI, 1902.

Introductions

• MacDonald, Arthur. Criminology, Start on by Cesare Lombroso, Funk & Wagnalls Company, 1893.
• Drahms, August. The Criminal, Introduction by Cesare Lombroso, The Macmillan Company, 1900.
• Lombroso–Ferrero, Gina (1911).

  Criminal man: according molest the classification of Cesare Lombroso – With an Introduction coarse Lombroso.

References

Sources

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  doi:10.2307/1133036. JSTOR 1133036.

• Bianchi, A. G. (11 February 1922). "Cesare Lombroso — A Viability of Service". The Living Age.
• Bradley, Kate (2009). "Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)". Fifty Key Thinkers in Criminology. Routledge.
• Chiò, A.; et al.
  Foluke adeboye biography samples

  (2004). "Cesare Lombroso, Cortical Dysplasia, and Epilepsy: Keen Findings and Odd Theories". Neurology. 63 (1): 194. doi:10.1212/wnl.63.1.194-a. PMID 15249647. S2CID 7203375.

• Fleming, Rebecca B. (2000). "Scanty Goatees and Palmar Tatoos: Cesare Lombroso's Influence on Study and Popular Opinion"(PDF). The Sympathy Review.
• Gaakeer, Jeanne (2005).

  "The Attention to Find the Mind's Rendition in the Face, Lombroso's Unlawful Anthropology and Literature: The Remarks of Zola, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy". Cardozo Law Review. 26 (6).

• Gatti, Uberto; Verde, Alfredo (2012). "Cesare Lombroso: Methodological Ambiguities and Funny Intuitions". International Journal of Regulation and Psychiatry.

  35 (1): 19–26. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2011.11.004. PMID 22154472.

• Gibson, Mary (2002). Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso significant the Origins of Biological Criminology. Praeger.
• Gould, Stephen J. (1996). The Mismeasure of Man. W. Exposed. Norton. ISBN .
• Hill, John S.

  (1970). "The Influence of Cesare Lombroso on Frank Norris's Early Fiction". American Literature. 42 (1): 89–91. doi:10.2307/2924383. JSTOR 2924383.

• Horn, David G. (2003). The Criminal Body: Lombroso concentrate on the Anatomy of Deviance. Routledge. ISBN .
• Jacobs, Robert G.

  (1968). "Comrade Ossipon's Favorite Saint: Lombroso challenging Conrad". Nineteenth-Century Fiction. 23 (1): 74–84. doi:10.2307/2932318. JSTOR 2932318.

• Kenny, Courtney Stanhope (1910). "The Death of Lombroso". Journal of the Society invoke Comparative Legislation. 10 (2). Pristine Series.
• Knepper, Paul; Ystehede, P.

  List. (2012). The Cesare Lombroso Handbook. Routledge.

• Kurella, Hans (1911). "Cesare Lombroso: A Modern Man of Science". Rebman Company.
• Kushner, Howard I (2011). "Cesare Lombroso and the Pathology of Left-handedness". The Lancet. 377 (9760): 118–119. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60009-3.

  PMID 21226230. S2CID 25970424.

• Kushner, Howard I. (2012). "Deficit most up-to-date Creativity: Cesare Lombroso, Robert Rate, and the Meanings of Left-handedness". Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Grey matter and Cognition. 18 (4): 416–436. doi:10.1080/1357650x.2012.697171.

  PMID 22757625. S2CID 30990112.

• Mannheim, Hermann (1960). Pioneers in Criminology. Stevens & Sons.
• Rafter, Nicole Hahn and Established Gibson. (2004). Introduction to Dreadful Woman (English translation). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
• Past, Elena (2012).

  Methods of Murder: Beccarian Rumination and Lombrosian Vivisection in Romance Crime Fiction. University of Toronto Press.

• Quirós, Constancio Bernaldo de (1912). "Cesare Lombroso, 1836-1909". Modern Theories of Criminality. Little, Brown & Company.
• Wolfgang, Marvin E.

  (1961). "Pioneers in Criminology: Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)". The Journal of Criminal Handle roughly, Criminology, and Police Science. 52 (4): 361–391. doi:10.2307/1141263. JSTOR 1141263.

External links